A Stand Against Intolerance:
The Stonewall Riots and Their Influenceby Cassandra Burgdorf
(Cassandra wrote this paper for the 2006 National History Day competition, the theme of which was "Taking a Stand." She took third place in the Junior Historical Paper category of the Omaha district competition, but unfortunately didn't place well enough at the state level to allow her to move on to the national competition. Nonetheless, we are quite proud of her!)
There have been many different views and ideas concerning the Stonewall Riots of 1969, which, as a whole, are often referred to as the Stonewall Rebellion. Nowadays, perhaps one of the most common viewpoints is that the Stonewall Riots were a turning point in homosexual history, an axis that opened opportunities for many more gay rights and liberation movements. There were only a few supportive gay societies and groups before the riots (for example, the Mattachine Society), and little was actually done to gain rights other than small speeches until after that late night in Greenwich Village, New York.
The actual rioting took place in and around the Stonewall Inn. The Stonewall Inn was a popular homosexual bar at the time. It was located on Christopher Street, next to Christopher Park and close to Sheridan Square and the crossing by Seventh Avenue South. Like any other homosexual bar in New York, it was regularly raided, and it risked losing its license to serve alcohol because it so willingly sold to homosexuals. But the raids made no immediate effect at first; the inn would go back into business a week, at the most, after a raid, and it continued to openly serve homosexuals even after many police warnings. Many bars had arrangements with the police to keep their licenses in which they would pay the police directly.
June 27, 1969, was a typical New York Friday night. Most places were full, including the Stonewall Inn. The people in the Stonewall Inn, both homosexuals and the employees, were calm and rather easy-going. The clock was ticking on, hours passing by, and the residents were sure that if a raid had been planned for the night, it would already have been executed. People drank, talked, or watched the go-go boys dance, but whatever they were doing, they were not worried. No one there paid any attention to the two women and two men who walked through the front doors and starting conversing with the workers.
Outside the inn, Deputy Inspector Seymour Pine was feeling good about the night. He wanted this raid to pack some extra punch. He was tired of seeing this sort of place reopen a day or two after it was busted. He had with him an inspector from the Department of Consumer Affairs -- having a city inspector would help strengthen the case -- a federal agent from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, a search warrant, two women from Chinatown's Fifth Precinct, and five Public Morals officers besides himself. He had planned a meeting just before midnight, prior to the raid, to go over the details with them.
At midnight he sent in four undercover agents, the women and two of the men from the Public Morals office. They were going in to find information: who mixed the drinks, who served them, who was in charge. They were supposed to get names so the police would know who to arrest. Normally he hated using women, but they were important in picking out the transvestites. Wearing the opposite sex's clothing was a criminal offense, and those doing so would be arrested. As part of their job, those undercover had to mingle with the crowd, to get friendly. They had to play along with whatever happened.
Pine couldn't imagine how they handled that, especially those that were married. But it needed to be done, or they wouldn't know who to take in. Watches ticked steadily on, and they waited for the undercover agents to return. How long now? Maybe thirty minutes? An hour? They did not return. Time seemed to have frozen, with nothing but the night around them. The doors to the bar still did not open. Anxiety was growing in the group, worry spread. Had something happened? Should they go in? Pine said to await awhile longer, but if the agents still did not return then they would go in.
At 1:20 AM, Pine said to go in. He stepped up to the door of the building and announced, "Police! We're taking the place!" There was a moment or two's pause before the door opened. As they walked in, they were joined by the undercover agents. When asked why they had taken so long, the agents explained that when they came in the shift had just changed, and they wanted to get names of workers for both shifts, so they were waiting for it to change again. When the raiding party gained entrance, they used a pay phone to notify the Sixth Precinct of their action and to ask for backup.
Most of the homosexuals in the bar did not immediately know just what was happening. Soon enough, though, they realized that they were being raided, and many people crowded towards the doors, desperate to get out and avoid arrest. Many had well-paying jobs that they could very easily have lost if they were discovered to be homosexual. Panic arose in some of them; others tried to contain anger or to hide fear. Some even tried to climb out windows or hide in the restrooms, but with no success.
The police tried to get control of the place. They gathered people in lines in different parts of the building. Transvestites were brought into the restrooms to be questioned. The people who were not going to be arrested were pushed to the front, and told to have prepared ID in order to leave. Anyone without ID would be arrested. Unknown to the police, anyone with an extra ID that didn't have a picture would give it to another who didn't have one. They all helped each other. People were nervous, and some tried to resist. Particularly, the transvestites put up the greatest fight, probably because they had the most to lose. Many people thought all transvestites were prostitutes.
After having shown ID the police expected the people to slowly wander home, glad to be out, like usual. But instead, the people who got out stuck around outside the building. This surprised Pine, but it didn't matter, because then the backup arrived. They tried to calm the crowd and keep them back, while Pine and the others finished up inside the building. The people resisted. Why were they mobbing like this? They should have been walking home, glad that they had not been arrested. Even as the crowd slowly grew and became restless and resisting, he worried. This should not have been happening.
But according to Professor Meredith Bacon, a teacher of political science and gay history at the University of Nebraska at Omaha, the police should have expected it. "The police had set up a boiling pot of water. They should have known that sooner or later it would bubble over. That happened at Stonewall."
The people waited in line for the ID check for about fifteen minutes, though it seemed to them like much longer. Many did not know of the commotion in the restrooms. As they were being let out and starting forming crowds, patrol cars from the Sixth Precinct rolled up and parked directly in front of the building, to reinforce the foot patrols already there. Inside the building, Pine thought he would have some patrol wagons come in as well, to transport the alcohol and the people who were going to be arrested. He had not intended for so many transvestites to be taken in, and he was sure he would need more then one wagon.
Outside, people were still waiting in the streets outside the bar. One reason was this: it was peak time. One o'clock in the morning on a summer Saturday, and there was enough customers when the bar was raided that they could form a crowd. With such a large number of people many of them had friends inside the building that they wanted to wait for. Others were simply filled with anger, not only at this raid, but also at the last raid that had been performed on the Stonewall Inn, on Tuesday. Other bars had been raided recently as well -- the Snake Pit, the Checkerboard, and the Sewer -- and now the Stonewall had been raided twice in one week.
The crowd outside the inn was growing rapidly, as the club's elected patrons reached the street, where they were joined by a considerable amount of tourists. The tourists had come looking for excitement on a Friday night, and had found it for free on the street. By now the crowds were about 100 to 150 people. The small crowd cheered when some of the club's favorites left the inn. An attitude started to sweep through the crowd. It became a sort of show. No one would have thought it would turn into rioting; it was just another bar raid. It would be no different. There just happened to be a tiny crowd out this time.
Then, seemingly out of nowhere, a paddy wagon appeared. Its arrival marked the time when the people realized the real seriousness of this raid. For a moment the crowd was hushed. Pine exited and began getting the evidence and people into the wagon, noticing that he still had only one. The raid itself was over now, but the crowds still lingered. The first in the wagon were any Mafia members that had been discovered. (The Stonewall, like many other gay bars, was run by the Mafia.) As they were loaded into the paddy wagon, a cry went through the crowd, "Gay Power!" But soon the sound dissolved. Next came the inn's employees. As they climbed in, some in the crowd started to sing "We Shall Overcome." Last in were the "queens," and the men in drag.
The first hostile act was when a police officer shoved a transvestite, who then turned and smacked the officer with her purse. The man clubbed her, and that movement was followed by a wave of boos and catcalls from the crowd. People began beating the wagon, trying to see who was being hauled on or off, all the while booing loudly. Homosexuals used pay phones throughout Sheridan Square to call friends and tell them to come to the Stonewall, others ran through the neighborhood shouting that the Stonewall had been busted. Police tried in vain to disperse the crowd, but it only made the people angrier. Another hostile act was when, as being lead to a patrol car, a lesbian woman put up a fight, and encouraged the crowd to do so. Soon everything was chaos. People shouted and tossed objects at the police.
Pine yelled to the drivers of the cars and the wagon to drop those arrested at the Sixth Precinct and hurry back. There was much more to done this night. After a large cobblestone was throne at one of the cars, the police backed up and barricaded themselves inside the Stonewall Inn. Many of the homosexuals, largely lesbians, who had resisted, were being beaten in the heat of the crowd.
There was much confusion now. The paddy wagon tried to drive past the crowd, being assisted with three police cars, the sirens on and screaming. But the noise hardly intimidated the ever-growing crowd. Coins, bottles, and pop cans were thrown at any police outside the Stonewall, and at the building itself. The objects used as barricades around the inn proved to be poor insulation against the thrown objects. A group of gay men used a parking meter as a battering ram on the inn's doors. Eventually the doors gave, though the police still tried to keep them shut.
Bottles that were designed to explode into flames, "Molotov cocktails," were being thrown through the now broken windows of the Stonewall. The police were able to put out the flames with a fire hose that was inside, but it made them all more nervous. The police found a vent that led to the roof, and climbed through to prevent having to fire any shots at the crowd. Once through, they climbed down the back and used a phone in another building to call for assistance. Kids tossed garbage through the windows of the Stonewall and ignited it with lighter fluid, after which the police called the local firehouse.
The rioting continued, and after long enough it was morning, and the rioters were exhausted, so they slowly dispersed. But they showed up again that night and the next, to continue driving their point into the eyes of the police. Though the rioting that immediately followed the raid had not been planned, the protests and rioting in the days that followed were quite deliberate. Articles appeared in The New York Times, The Village Voice, and other local periodicals, but in places farther away the riots were not mentioned at all. The important role they would play in gay history was not immediately obvious.
By Wednesday, the riots were becoming popular talk among homosexuals, and it was becoming clear to them that things were going to change, for better or for worse.
As it turned out, the fact that gays, lesbians and transvestites had finally taken a very public stand changed many things, even if that stand had initially been accidental. It was a turning point in homosexual history. The Stonewall Riots led to more fights for rights, many of which were quite effective, in part because, unlike the riots at Stonewall, they were planned. In time homosexuals gained many of the rights they deserved as people. Progress started slow, but it was soon discovered that the homosexuals could use all this to their advantage.
In the decades since the riots, many things have changed. The world is a safer place for homosexuals. There are still many who "hide in the closet," but there are also many who have come out, now that it is less dangerous. National organizations such as PFLAG (Parents, Family and Friends of Lesbians And Gays) and GLSEN (Gay Lesbian Straight Education Network) have come into existence, helping to pull gays, lesbians and their allies not only from the closet but from despair. Annual Pride Parades celebrate the anniversary of the riots.
The stand was inevitable. If the riots hadn't started that night at Stonewall, it is likely that eventually, somewhere, essentially the same thing would have occurred. The Stonewall Inn just happened to be where the pot finally boiled over.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources:
"4 Policemen Hurt in 'Village' Raid," The New York Times (June 29, 1969) -- This article was focused more on police and the reasons for the raid and a few theories then anything else. It shows, though somewhat indirectly, that homosexuals were often ignored in their dilemmas and points of view. This source was helpful in understanding the typical view of homosexuals at the time of the riots. It was helpful in showing how hated, for lack of a better term, the homosexuals were by most straights and especially by police; they refused to learn more about homosexuals and therefore did not understand them.
"Policing the Third Sex," Newsweek (October 27, 1969) -- As can be told from the date of this article, October, many did not acknowledge the riots happening for quite a while. Even many local periodicals failed to mention them. This article was useful in understanding the view point of the common person in New York at the time. Homosexuals were downright evil. Call a person "queer" or "gay" or "lesbian," and it was suddenly OK to harass them, even with a public audience nearby. Most never questioned the treatment of homosexuals. This article was helpful in understanding the severity of this, and though it was focused more on the police work that night, it tried to bring out some the more important points in the riots as well.
"The Homosexual: Newly Visible, Newly Understood," Time (October 31, 1969) -- Although it took this article long enough to get published, it was indeed useful in my writing. I could not find the author's name, though I would assume it was an average straight man (or woman), because homosexuals couldn't have kept a job like that for very long. Despite the society they were in, the article managed to try and show a little of both sides of the riots. This article was a unique combination of two contrasting view points put together in the haste and confusion of a sudden need for rights so great that it caused a rebellion. This article helped to broaden my understanding of the topic.
Secondary Sources:
Amsel, Robert, "Back to Our Future? A Walk on the Wild Side of Stonewall," The Advocate (September 15, 1987) -- A useful but somewhat limited source that showed me many fine details that other sources skipped over. It gave a unique and descriptive look at the Mattachine society, though I did not so much use this information in my paper. The article contained multiple views about the Stonewall Riots and a short summary of the events to follow after the rioting. This article could have been longer, but long or not, it proved to be useful enough in my own paper. I'm glad I found this source, if for nothing else, then for the handy details it supplied.
Bacon, Dr. W. Meredith, personal interview (2006) -- Dr. Bacon is a professor of political science at the University of Nebraska at Omaha, and a self-described "transgender activist." She teaches at least one course on gay history every year. She is also a transsexual, born Wally Bacon, who has transitioned to live as a female. Her opinions are based on many views, not just those common to other transgender individuals. I deemed her words useful, helpful in explaining simply what happened, although I only used one exact quote in my paper. Professor Bacon was not herself a participant in the Stonewall riots, but has interviewed several transgender individuals who were. Her words helped to shape my paper to what it is.
Bull, Chris (editor), Witness to Revolution: The Advocate Reports on Gay and Lesbian Politics, 1967-1999, Alyson Publications (1999) -- This book is a collection of Advocate articles. The Advocate was meant to relay news to the homosexual population in a friendly manner. There were a few Advocate articles on the Stonewall Riots, all of which helped me to understand more about the homosexual point of view about the events. It gave information that, whether or not I had already known it to an extent, showed more about homosexuals from the way in which it was written.
Burgdorf, Darryl, "An Overview of GLBT History" (online article, updated December 2005) -- This Web site was of limited use, with only a small section mentioning the Stonewall Riots. It compared them with the time of McCarthy. Though there was little compared to some of my other sources, it was useful due to its perspective. It tried to show most points of view involved, and was compiled by a gay man (my father), though not one who'd been at the actual riots. There was only so much information I hadn't already learned, but what was there proved useful when writing the paper. It turned out to be quite helpful, despite its small size.
Caitlyn, Ryan, "Homosexuality" (online article), New Book of Knowledge, Scholastic Library Publishing (updated January 2006) -- Not only mentions the actual riots, but talks about many other events in homosexual history, both before and after Stonewall. It gave information about the people involved in the events, and how each event affected many or most homosexuals. A unique view point was offered, and and proved very helpful in understanding the topic. To understand a person's actions, you must understand not only the situation, but the person. Many homosexuals, especially transvestites, were believed at the time to be prostitutes, a reason, perhaps, for their mistreatment. This site, in the end, proved quite helpful. It gave unique information.
Carter, David, Stonewall: The Riots that Sparked the Gay Revolution, St. Martin's Press (2004) -- This book provided a unique collection of chronological information, with many riveting details that set it apart from most of my other sources. It was valuable not only for explanations of events leading up to the riots themselves, but also for reasons and theories as to why this all happened. It was helpful for many "fine point" details which other sources overlooked, as well as for a look at many of the individual people involved. It gave many quotes, though I refrained from using them. Knowing more about the people was influential in the writing, because the knowledge helped me to better understand the events during the riots.
D'Emilio, John, The World Turned, Duke University Press (2002) -- The applicability of this book was limited, but it was all the more useful because of it. It spoke of many gay rights and homosexual liberations of the time, not just of the Stonewall Riots. It weaved the events together, showing how each one was influential in creating and activating the next along the line. The small section it had speaking of and explaining the Stonewall Riots was useful in my paper for the facts it offered. It helped to deepen my understanding of the riots, not only as a whole, but also when looked at a little bit more closely.
Dubermen, Martin, Stonewall, Plume Publishing (1994) -- This book was very helpful in picking out details, though it was not very explanatory towards some of those fine points. It gave a more recent depiction of the riots then something written, say, a week after they happened, and tried to put some rhyme and reason behind the events. It was very useful, but also very limited. It gave desired details, though not much else, to many of the acts during the Stonewall Riots. I used those details throughout my paper, combined with details and views from many other sources, to give the reader a feeling of excitement.
"Greenwich Village" (online article), Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Scholastic Library Publishing (updated January 2006) -- A small but useful section about Greenwich Village, the place the Riots happened in. Though Stonewall was only vaguely mentioned, it was helpful in understanding the twisting street patterns of Greenwich, for the little map it provided. It summarized the Village's history, and in that was not so useful to me as other sources. The awkward streets and directions were part of the reason the police failed at keeping more rioters from coming in an attempt to block the roads. They were a key part in the overall of the Stonewall Riots, for the large number of protesters was mainly due to that.
"Stonewall Riots" (online article), Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Scholastic Library Publishing (updated January 2006) -- Only a page or two, so the actual amount of useful information and previously unknown info was rather small. But what I did discover was helpful to the very last detail. It was handy, mainly as a quick read source, staying to the point and still giving interesting details that I have used. It may have been rather limited, but that did not prevent this site from being legitimately useful. Though most of it I had already known, it provided new usable info that added a bit of flavor to my paper.
"Stonewall Riots" (online article), Wikipedia (updated December 2005) -- This small, limited article about the riots connected them to other events in 1969 and showed how they led to many gay rights movements. This site was short and to the point, being specific without overwhelming the reader with fine points and details. It was helpful in picking out the most important events of the night, what should be most focused on, at the same time showing the riots as a part in the gay rights history before and after. It helped in seeing how the riots were built up.
Thompson, Mark, A Long Road to Freedom, St. Martin's Press (2000) -- This book is largely a collection of articles from The Advocate around the time of Stonewall. The Advocate is a gay periodical meant to relay news to homosexuals. It mentioned the riots often enough, touching on how they could continue to have an effect for quite a while, or they could be completely ignored. It was very helpful in seeing the riots from a homosexual's point of view, and getting details on some of the ideas behind the obvious, for this book had not only the Advocate articles, but explanations after each one showing the intents of the articles and how readers were meant to react.